CANCER AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
What You Need to Know
What You Can Do
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
AND HUMAN SERVICES
National Institutes
of Health
National Cancer Institute
National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences
CANCER AND THE ENVIRONMENT
T
his booklet was created by scientists at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and
the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) in response to
many public requests for information. The content has been guided by responses
from a series of focus groups* that were conducted prior to producing the booklet.
People from local communities throughout the country participated in these groups.
NCI and NIEHS are 2 of the 27 institutes/centers that make up the National Institutes
of Health (NIH), an agency of the Federal Government鈥檚 Department of Health and
Human Services supported by your tax dollars. NIH is the major supporter of medical
research in universities and academic centers throughout the country. To date, 102
Nobel Prize winners have been supported by funds from NIH, more than any other
scientific institution in the world. For details, go to the NIH Web site at
http://www.nih.gov.
NCI was established by Congress in 1937 as the Federal Government鈥檚 principal
agency for cancer research and training. Research projects include a broad range of
topics: the cellular events in the development of cancer; the role of infectious agents
or other agents in the environment or workplace; the role of genetic and hormonal
factors; the interactions between environmental agents and genetic factors in the
development of cancer; improved imaging techniques and biomarkers in the blood or
urine for the early detection of cancer; and the role of diet and other chemicals in
preventing cancer. Additional activities include tracking cancer trends, coordinating
studies to test new drugs, and supporting new drug and vaccine development. Since
the passage of the National Cancer Act in 1971, which broadened NCI鈥檚
responsibilities, the institute has built an extensive network that includes regional
and community cancer centers, specialized cancer physicians, and cooperative
groups of researchers throughout the country and abroad to test new prevention and
treatment agents. NCI鈥檚 mission also includes the collection and dissemination of
health information, programs to promote the incorporation of state-of-the-art cancer
treatments into care of cancer patients, and the continuing care of cancer patients
and their families. For more information, go to NCI鈥檚 Web site at
http://www.cancer.gov.
NIEHS was established by Congress in 1966 for the purpose of reducing human
illness caused by hazardous substances in the environment. The National Toxicology
Program, which is headquartered at NIEHS, helps coordinate toxicology studies
among Federal agencies and identifies substances that might cause cancer. NIEHS
conducts and supports extensive biomedical research, disease prevention, and
intervention programs, as well as training, education, and community outreach
efforts. NIEHS is a leader in understanding the effect of environmental pollution on
birth and developmental defects, sterility, Alzheimer鈥檚 and other brain and nerve
disorders, pulmonary diseases, poverty and health, and cancer. For more
information, go to the NIEHS Web site at http://www.niehs.nih.gov.
*All terms in bold italics are defined in the glossary (see page 35).
The authors dedicate this publication to Dr. Susan Sieber Fabro
(1942鈥?2002), a scientist at NCI, who provided the leadership to make
the booklet a reality.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction
1 What causes cancer?
4 The nature of cancer
7 What substances in the environment are known to cause or are likely to
cause cancer in humans? Where are they found?
7 Tobacco
8 Diet/Weight/Physical Inactivity
9 Alcoholic drinks
9 Ultraviolet radiation
9 Viruses and bacteria
10 Ionizing radiation
11 Pesticides
11 Medical drugs
12 Solvents
13 Fibers, fine particles, and dust
13 Dioxins
14 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
14 Metals
16 Diesel exhaust particles
16 Toxins from fungi
17 Vinyl chloride
17 Benzidine
17 What are some ways to reduce the risk of developing cancer or detect
cancer at an early stage?
22 How do scientists identify cancer-causing substances?
25 How do scientists decide which substances to test in animals, human
laboratory cells, or human population studies?
26 What factors do scientists consider in determining the risk associated with
different cancer-causing substances?
28 How do public health officials set acceptable exposure levels for
environmental chemicals?
29 How have cancer trends changed over the past few years?
33 Where can I go for more information?
38 Glossary
41 Index
INTRODUCTION
T
his booklet addresses concerns about the connection between cancer* and
exposure to toxic substances in the environment. It contains information
about which types of substances are either known to cause or likely to
cause cancer, and what can be done to reduce exposures to them. It also
explains how scientists discover which substances are likely to cause cancer.
Although toxic substances may cause other health effects, cancer is the focus
of this booklet.
At the end of the booklet, you will find information about the government
agencies responsible for reducing exposures to harmful substances and
where to go for more information. These agencies develop policies to limit
our exposure to agents that can be hazardous to our health such as lead in
gasoline and paint, asbestos in building insulation, bacteria in our water
supplies, air pollutants, and pesticides. Some harmful exposures, however,
result from personal choices or lifestyles.
The good news is that a large number of cancers can be prevented. It is
estimated that as many as two-thirds of all cancer cases are linked to
environmental causes. This number may even be higher. Many of these are
linked to lifestyle factors that can be modified. For example, we know that one-
third of all the cancer deaths in this country could be prevented by eliminating
the use of tobacco products. In addition, about 25 to 30 percent of the cases of
several major cancers are associated with obesity and physical inactivity.
WHAT CAUSES CANCER?
C
ancer develops over several years and has many causes. Several factors
both inside and outside the body contribute to the development of
cancer. In this context, scientists refer to everything outside the body
that interacts with humans as the 鈥渆nvironment.鈥?
Factors Outside the Body (Environmental Factors)
Exposure to a wide variety of natural and man-made substances in the
environment accounts for at least two-thirds of all the cases of cancer in the
United States. These environmental factors include lifestyle choices like
cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, poor diet, lack of exercise,
excessive sunlight exposure, and sexual behavior that increases exposure to
certain viruses (see page 9). Other factors include exposure to certain medical
drugs, hormones, radiation, viruses, bacteria, and environmental chemicals that
may be present in the air, water, food, and workplace. The cancer risks
associated with many environmental chemicals have been identified through
studies of occupational groups that have higher exposures to these chemicals
than the general population.
*All terms in bold italics are defined in the glossary (see page 38).
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 1
AND THE
The importance of the environment can be seen in the differences in cancer
rates throughout the world and the change in cancer rates when groups of
people move from one country to another. For example, when Asians, who have
low rates of prostate and breast cancer and high rates of stomach cancer in
their native countries, immigrate to the United States, their prostate and breast
cancer rates rise over time until they are nearly equal to or greater than the
higher levels of these cancers in the United States. Likewise, their rates of
stomach cancer fall, becoming nearly equal to the lower U.S. rates. Lifestyle
factors such as diet, exercise, and being overweight are thought to play a major
role in the trends for breast and prostate cancers, and infection with the
Helicobacter pylori bacterium is an important risk factor for stomach cancer.
Recently, the rapid rise in the rates of colorectal cancer in Japan and China
suggests an environmental cause such as lifestyle factors.
Different environmental exposures are linked to specific kinds of cancer. For
example, exposure to asbestos is linked primarily to lung cancer, whereas
exposure to benzidine, a chemical found in certain dyes (see page 17), is
associated with bladder cancer. In contrast, smoking is linked to cancers of the
lung, bladder, mouth, colon, kidney, throat, voice box, esophagus, lip, stomach,
cervix, liver, and pancreas.
Factors Inside the Body
Certain factors inside the body make some people more likely to develop cancer
than others. For instance, some people either inherit or acquire the following
conditions: altered genes in the body鈥檚 cells, abnormal hormone levels in the
bloodstream, or a weakened immune system. Each of these factors may make
an individual more susceptible to cancer.
One of the ways scientists know that genes play an important role in the
development of cancer is from studying certain rare families where family
members over several generations develop similar cancers. It appears that
these families are passing on an altered gene that carries with it a high chance
of getting cancer. Several genes that greatly increase a person鈥檚 chance of
developing certain cancers (e.g., colon, breast, and ovary) have been identified.
Only a very small percentage of people in the general population have abnormal
copies of these genes. Cancers caused by these genes, known as familial
cancers, account for only two to five percent of all cancers.
Gene alterations may also contribute to individual differences in susceptibility
to environmental carcinogens (cancer-causing substances). For instance,
people differ in their ability to eliminate cancer-causing agents from their body
to which they have been exposed, or to repair DNA damage that was caused by
such agents. These gene alterations may also be passed on in families and
account for higher rates of cancer in these families. Higher rates of cancer in
families may also be related to shared environmental exposures like diet or
exposure to carcinogens at work.
2 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
Cell
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Gene
DNA
Molecule
Tightly coiled strands of DNA, which carry the instructions
that allow cells to make proteins, are packaged in units
called chromosomes. Subunits of DNA are known as genes.
One of the main objectives of a growing field in cancer research called
molecular epidemiology is to identify gene alterations that increase or
decrease a person鈥檚 chance of developing cancer after an environmental
exposure.
PROTECTIVE FACTORS
E
xposure to cancer-causing substances is only a part of what determines who
will get cancer. For example, some people who smoke do not get lung
cancer, and not all women who are infected with human papilloma virus
(see page 9) develop cervical cancer. Scientists believe that there may be some
protective genes, or other factors such as fruits and vegetables in the diet, that
help prevent disease.
Interaction of Environmental Factors and Genes
Environmental factors such as viruses, sunlight, and chemicals interact with
cells throughout our lives. Mechanisms to repair damage to our genes and
healthy lifestyle choices (wearing protective clothing for sun exposure or not
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 3
AND THE
smoking) help to protect us from harmful exposures. However, over time,
substances in the environment may cause gene alterations, which accumulate
inside our cells. While many alterations have no effect on a person鈥檚 health,
permanent changes in certain genes can lead to cancer.
The chance that an individual will develop cancer in response to a particular
environmental agent depends on several interacting factors鈥攈ow long and how
often a person is exposed to a particular substance, his/her exposure to other
agents, genetic factors, diet, lifestyle, health, age, and gender. For example, diet,
alcohol consumption, and certain medications can affect the levels of chemicals
in the body that break down cancer-causing substances.
Because of the complex interplay of many factors, it is not possible to predict
whether a specific environmental exposure will cause a particular person to
develop cancer. We know that certain genetic and environmental factors increase
the risk of developing cancer, but we rarely know exactly which combination of
factors is responsible for a person鈥檚 specific cancer. This also means that we
usually don鈥檛 know why one person gets cancer and another does not.
INTERPLAY OF FACTORS
T
here are particular patterns of gene alterations and environmental exposures
that make people both more susceptible or more resistant to cancer. One of
the challenging areas of research today is trying to identify the unique
combinations of these factors that explain why one person will develop cancer
and another will not.
THE NATURE OF CANCER
T
here are more than 100 types of cancer. Cancer begins inside a cell, the
basic building block of all living things. Normally, when the body needs more
cells, older ones die off and younger cells divide to form new cells that take
their place. When cancer develops, however, the orderly process of producing
new cells breaks down. Cells continue to divide when new cells are not needed,
and a growth or extra mass of cells called a tumor is formed. Over time,
changes may take place in tumor cells that cause them to invade and interfere
with the function of normal tissues.
It takes many years for the development of a tumor and even more years until
detection of a tumor and its spread to other parts of the body. People exposed to
carcinogens from smoking cigarettes, for example, generally do not develop
detectable cancer for 20 to 30 years.
There is much evidence to suggest that permanent changes in our genes are
responsible for tumor development. These can be inherited or acquired
throughout one鈥檚 lifetime. Scientists have identified more than 300 altered genes
4 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
that can play a role in tumor development. An alteration in growth-promoting
genes, known as oncogenes, for example, can signal the cell to divide out of
control, similar to having a gas pedal stuck to the floorboard. On the other
hand, an alteration in tumor suppressor genes, which normally serve as
brakes for dividing cells, will allow cells with damaged DNA to continue
dividing, rather than repairing the DNA or eliminating the injured cells.
Alteration occurs in
oncogene or
tumor suppressor
gene
No repair DNA repair
Cancer No cancer
An alteration in growth-promoting genes, known as
oncogenes, can signal the cell to divide out of control.
An alteration in tumor suppressor genes will allow
cells with damaged DNA to continue dividing, rather
than repairing the DNA or eliminating the injured cells.
One explanation for the fact that cancer occurs more frequently in older people
may be that, for a tumor to develop, a cell must acquire several gene
alterations that accumulate as we age. As the graph on page 6 illustrates, less
than 0.1 percent of the total number of cancer cases in the United States occur
in people under the age of 15, whereas nearly 80 percent occur in people age
55 or older.
Types of Tumors
Tumors are classified as either benign or malignant. Benign tumors are
not cancer and do not spread to other parts of the body.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 5
AND THE
A malignant tumor can metastasize鈥攁 process during which cancer cells
escape from the tumor, enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and
spread to nearby parts of the body and eventually to sites far away from the
original tumor. Some benign tumors may, over time, become malignant tumors.
The development of malignant tumors involves many steps taking place over
several years. The earlier a tumor is detected, the less likely it will have spread
to other parts of the body. In the past 25 years, enormous progress has been
made in defining the molecular events that take place as a normal cell becomes
malignant and the critical genes thought to be involved. See resources listed as
鈥淕eneral Cancer Information鈥? at the end of the booklet for more information.
Most cancers are named for the organ or type of cell in which they begin to
grow, such as lung, stomach, breast, or colon cancer. Some of the names for
other cancers, however, are less clear. Melanoma is a cancer of cells in the
skin, eyes, and some other tissues, known as melanocytes, that make pigment.
Leukemias are cancers of the blood cells, and lymphomas are cancers that
develop in the lymphatic system. The most common cancers in the U.S are
carcinomas. Carcinomas are cancers that develop in the tissue that lines the
surfaces of certain organs, such as the lung, liver, skin, or breast. This tissue is
called epithelial tissue. Cancers that develop in the epithelial tissue of specific
organs are called carcinoma of the lung, or carcinoma of the breast, for
example. Another group of cancers is sarcomas: these arise from cells in bone,
cartilage, fat, connective tissue, and muscle.
CANCER CASES BY AGE IN U.S.
3000
2500
Cases per 100,000 people
2000
1500
1000
500
0
85+
10-14
15-19
5-9
75-79
0-4
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
50-54
55-59
60-64
70-74
80-84
65-69
45-49
Source: http://seer.cancer.gov
6 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
WHAT SUBSTANCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ARE
KNOWN TO CAUSE OR ARE LIKELY TO CAUSE CANCER
IN HUMANS? WHERE ARE THEY FOUND?
E
very two years, scientists from a wide range of government agencies and
educational institutions collaborate with scientists from the National
Toxicology Program (NTP) in Research Triangle Park, NC, to publish the
Report on Carcinogens. The report identifies substances that are either known
to cause or suspected of causing cancer in humans and to which a significant
number of people in the United States are exposed. It is the source for the
agents listed in this booklet.
This booklet does not include all of the more than 200 agents listed in the
Report on Carcinogens. The 50 or so discussed below are those for which there
is a great deal of public interest:
鈻? Tobacco
Exposure to the carcinogens in tobacco products accounts for about one-
third of all cancer deaths in the United States each year. Cigarette, cigar, and
pipe smoking, chewing tobacco, snuff, and exposure to environmental
tobacco smoke (ETS or secondhand smoke) are all linked to increased cancer
risks. Cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoking have been associated with cancers
of the lung, mouth, bladder, colon, kidney, throat, nasal cavity, voice box,
esophagus, lip, stomach, cervix, liver, and pancreas, and with leukemia;
smokeless tobacco has been linked to cancers of the mouth; and ETS has
been implicated in lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains more than 100
cancer-causing substances. The risk for cancers of the mouth, voice box, and
esophagus is further increased among smokers who also drink more than
two drinks/day.
he 10th Report on Carcinogens, published in December 2002, lists 228
T substances that are either known to cause or suspected of causing cancer.
It also describes where they are found and the scientific evidence that they
cause cancer. The Report serves as a useful guide for the Federal agencies listed
in the back of this booklet, which are responsible for establishing acceptable
levels of exposure to chemical substances in the general environment, home,
and workplace, and in food, water, and medical drugs. For this and future
reports, visit the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Web site at
http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov.
A longstanding international group known as the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) also produces reports on known or suspected
carcinogens, as well as occupations associated with cancer risk. Visit the IARC
Web site: http://www.iarc.fr.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 7
AND THE
鈻? Diet/Weight/Physical Inactivity
Because there are few definite relationships between food and cancer, the
Report on Carcinogens does not refer to the cancer-related effects of specific
foods. However, several studies show that heavy consumption of red and
preserved meats, salt-preserved foods, and salt probably increase the risk of
colorectal and stomach cancers. There is also evidence that a diet rich in
fruits and vegetables may decrease the risks of esophageal, stomach, and
colorectal cancers.
Being overweight or obese appears to be one of the most important
modifiable causes of cancer, after tobacco. Large population studies show a
consistent association between obesity and certain kinds of cancer. The
strongest links are with breast cancer in older women, and cancers of the
endometrium, kidney, colon, and esophagus.
There is strong evidence that physical inactivity increases the risk for colon
and breast cancer. The beneficial effect of exercise is greatest among very
active people. Together, it is estimated that inactivity and obesity account for
25 to 30 percent of the cases of several major cancers鈥攃olon, breast
(postmenopausal), endometrial, kidney, and cancer of the esophagus.
BODY MASS INDEX CHART, ADULTS 20 AND OVER
Weight (lbs.)
100
175
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
5'0"
5'1"
5'2"
5'3"
5'4"
5'5"
5'6"
Height (ft.,in.)
5'7"
Obese
5'8"
Overweight
5'9"
Healthy weight
5'10"
Underweight
5'11"
6'0"
6'1"
6'2"
6'3"
6'4"
6'5"
6'6"
BMI <18.5 BMI 18.5鈥?24.9 BMI 25.0鈥?29.9 BMI >30
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a number that shows body weight adjusted for height.
Based on their BMIs, adults 20 years and older fall into one of the four categories:
underweight; healthy weight; overweight; and obese. Individuals in the overweight or
obese category have a greater risk than those in the healthy weight category for
many diseases, including certain cancers. To find which category you are in, locate
your height and move across the chart to your weight.
8 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
鈻? Alcoholic drinks
Heavy drinkers (more than two drinks/day) have an increased risk of cancer,
particularly among those who also smoke. Cancers associated with heavy
drinking include cancers of the mouth, throat, voice box, liver, and
esophagus. There is also some evidence linking alcohol and cancer of the
breast.
鈻? Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, sunlamps, or tanning beds causes
premature aging of the skin and DNA damage that can lead to melanoma and
other forms of skin cancer. The incidence of skin cancers is rapidly
increasing.
鈻? Viruses and bacteria
Infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria clearly contribute to the
development of several types of cancer. A sexually transmitted virus called
human papillomavirus (HPV) is the primary cause of cervical and anal
cancer. Women who begin sexual intercourse at age 16 or younger or have
many sexual partners have an increased risk of infection. Infection with HPV
is increasingly common. However, even though infection with HPV is the
primary cause of cervical cancer, most infections do not result in cancer.
Hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) viral infections are major causes
of liver cancer. In Asia and Africa, HBV is usually acquired in childhood and
it carries a high risk of liver cancer. HBV infection is less common in the
United States. Risk factors for HBV include occupational exposure to blood
products, injection drug use, and high-risk sexual behavior (unprotected sex
with multiple partners). A vaccine is available to prevent infection with HBV.
The rising incidence of liver cancer in the United States is thought to be due
to HCV. The strongest risk factor for HCV infection is injection drug use, but
sexual transmission is also possible. People who received a blood
transfusion prior to 1989 may also be infected with this virus. Currently,
there is no vaccine for HCV.
Almost all adults are infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which is linked
to some types of lymphoma. EBV is the virus that causes mononucleosis.
Another type of virus called Kaposi鈥檚 sarcoma-associated herpesvirus
(KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), is linked to a
particular type of sarcoma called Kaposi鈥檚 sarcoma. KSHV infection only
occurs through close person-to-person contacts. In Mediterranean and
African countries, KSHV infection in childhood is common. In the U.S., KSHV
infection is most common in homosexual men. The risk of cancer for people
infected with either KSHV or EBV is low, except for those whose immune
systems are weakened, such as people infected with the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 9
AND THE
Infection with Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium, is widespread and is the
primary cause of peptic ulcers and chronic gastritis (inflammation of the
stomach). H. pylori contributes to the development of stomach cancer. Most
H. pylori infections, however, result in neither symptoms nor cancer.
鈻? Ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation is invisible, high-frequency radiation that can damage the
DNA or genes inside the body.
Everyone is exposed to very small doses of ionizing radiation from cosmic
rays (rays that enter the earth鈥檚 atmosphere from outer space). Radiation
from this source may account for a very small percentage (about 1 percent)
of our total cancer risk.
Some homes have elevated levels of radon, a naturally occurring radioactive
gas found at low levels in most soil. Radon is produced by the breakdown of
uranium, which naturally releases low levels of ionizing radiation. Higher
levels of radon can be found in certain types of rocky soil. The health effects
of radon were first seen in the elevated levels of lung cancer found in
underground uranium miners in the United States and around the world.
Radon gas seeps into homes from the surrounding soil through cracks and
other openings in the foundation. About 1 out of 20 homes has elevated
levels of radon. Even though the cancer risks for radon exposure in the home
are much lower than for radon-exposed miners, it is estimated that about
20,000 lung cancer deaths every year are caused by radon exposure in
homes. There are various strategies for reducing residential radon exposure.
Another source of ionizing radiation is the radioactive substances released by
atomic bombs or nuclear weapons known as 鈥渇allout.鈥? The doses of ionizing
radiation received by the atomic bomb survivors in Japan resulted in
increased risks of leukemia and cancers of the breast, thyroid, lung, stomach,
and other organs. Radioactive substances were also released in the above-
ground atomic bomb testing conducted by the U.S. Government in the late
1950s and early 1960s in Nevada. People exposed, especially as children, to
one radioactive form of iodine, called Iodine-131 or I-131, which collects in
the thyroid gland, may have an increased risk of thyroid disease, including
thyroid cancer. For more information visit: http://cancer.gov/i131.
People are also exposed to ionizing radiation during certain medical
procedures. Some patients who receive radiation to treat cancer or other
conditions may be at increased cancer risk. For example, persons treated
with radiation in childhood to treat acne, ringworm, and other head and neck
conditions have been shown to be at increased risk for thyroid cancer and
other tumors of the head and neck. X-rays used to diagnose or screen for a
disease are also forms of ionizing radiation. The dose of radiation from
procedures used to diagnose or screen for a disease is much lower than the
dose received to treat a disease. Most studies on the long-term effects of
10 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
exposure to radiation used to diagnose or screen for cancers or other
diseases have not shown an elevated cancer risk, but it is possible that there
is a small risk associated with this exposure. One exception is children
whose mothers received diagnostic X-rays during pregnancy. These children
were found to have increased risks of childhood leukemia and other types of
cancer, which led to the current ban on diagnostic X-rays in pregnant
women. Several other studies of women who received small weekly X-ray
doses to the chest over extended periods to monitor treatment for
tuberculosis showed a radiation-related increased risk of breast cancer.
鈻? Pesticides
Of the nearly 900 active ingredients in registered pesticides in the United
States, about 20 have been found to be carcinogenic in animals, although not
all have been tested. In the United States, a number of pesticides have been
banned or their use has been restricted. These include ethylene oxide,
amitrole, some chlorophenoxy herbicides, DDT, dimethylhydrazine,
hexachlorobenzene, hexamethylphosphoramide, chlordecone, lead
acetate, lindane, mirex, nitrofen, and toxaphene. Studies of people with
high exposures to pesticides, such as farmers, pesticide applicators, crop
duster pilots, and manufacturers, have found high rates of blood and
lymphatic system cancers, cancers of the lip, stomach, lung, brain, and
prostate, as well as melanoma and other skin cancers. So far, human studies
do not allow researchers to sort out exactly which pesticides are linked to
which cancers. Therefore, most of these pesticides are still listed in the
Report on Carcinogens as likely to be cancer-causing, rather than as known
carcinogens. For more information, visit: http://www.aghealth.org.
鈻? Medical drugs
Some drugs used to treat cancer (e.g., cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil,
melphalan) have been shown to increase the occurrence of second cancers,
including leukemia. Others that are used as immunosuppressants, such as
cyclosporin and azathioprine for patients having organ transplants, also are
associated with increased cancer risks, especially lymphoma. However, the
Food and Drug Administration has determined that the life-saving benefits of
these drugs outweigh the additional cancer risks years later. It is
recommended that people weigh the risks and benefits concerning the use of
a drug with the help of a physician or other health care specialist. Some
medicines have been linked to reduced risk of cancer. For example, some
studies find a reduced risk of colon cancer in persons who regularly take
aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicines. Evidence for
protection of other cancers such as breast cancer or prostate cancer is
inconsistent.
Estrogens used to treat symptoms of menopause and other gynecological
conditions have been shown to increase the incidence of endometrial cancer.
In addition, some studies have shown an increased risk of breast cancer with
estrogen use, but a reduced risk of colon cancer. Progesterone, another
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 11
AND THE
hormone now taken in combination with estrogen for hormone replacement
therapy in older women, helps to protect against the increased endometrial
cancer risk with estrogen alone. However, increased risks of breast cancer,
heart disease, stroke, and blood clots have recently been shown to be
associated with the use of estrogen plus progestin, a synthetic form of
progesterone. Long-term users of combination oral contraceptives have
substantially reduced risks of endometrial and ovarian cancers, but may
experience increases in early-onset breast cancers and liver cancer. The
amount of estrogen and progesterone in oral contraceptives is substantially
less than in previous years, which means that the risk of the current
formulations is likely to be less than those used in the past.
Increased risks of endometrial cancer as well as increased risks of stroke
and blood clots are also associated with tamoxifen use. Tamoxifen is a
synthetic hormone used to prevent the recurrence of breast cancer after
breast cancer surgery. It is also used to prevent breast cancer in women at
high risk for the disease because of family history or other factors. Again, it
is recommended that people weigh the risks and benefits concerning the use
of a drug with the help of a physician or other health care specialist.
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a synthetic form of estrogen prescribed to
pregnant women from the early 1940s to 1971. It was found that their
daughters who were exposed to DES before birth have an increased chance
of developing a rare type of cervical and vaginal cancer. In addition, women
who took DES during pregnancy may have a slightly higher risk for
developing breast cancer. Based on these findings, DES is no longer
prescribed, and its use as a cattle feed additive has been banned.
鈻? Solvents
Several solvents used in paint thinners, paint and grease removers, and in
the dry cleaning industry are known or suspected of being cancer-causing in
animal studies. These include benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
dichloromethane (methylene chloride), tetrachloroethylene, and
trichloroethylene. Human studies are suggestive, but not conclusive, except
for benzene. Therefore, with the exception of benzene, these substances are
listed as likely to be cancer-causing in humans.
Benzene is known to cause leukemia in humans. It has widespread use as a
solvent in the chemical and drug industries and as a gasoline component.
After 1997, its use as an ingredient in pesticides was banned. Workers
employed in the petrochemical industry, pharmaceutical industry, leather
industry, rubber industry, gas stations, and in the transportation industry are
exposed to benzene. Inhaling contaminated air is the primary method of
exposure. Because benzene is present in gasoline, air contamination occurs
around gas stations and in congested areas with automobile exhaust. It is
also present in cigarette smoke. It is estimated that half of the exposure to
12 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
benzene in the United States is from cigarette smoking. About half of the U.S.
population is exposed to benzene from industrial sources, and virtually
everyone in the country is exposed to benzene in gasoline.
鈻? Fibers, fine particles, and dust
Exposures to various fibers, fine particles, and dust occur in several
industrial settings and are associated with increased cancer risks. Exposure
can also occur in nonindustrial settings. Asbestos fibers and all commercial
forms of asbestos are human carcinogens. Increased rates of mesothelioma,
a rare cancer of the lining of the lung and abdominal cavity, and cancer of
the lung have been consistently observed in a variety of occupations involving
asbestos exposure. Asbestos exposures account for the largest percent of
occupational cancer, with the greatest risks among workers who smoke.
Asbestos fibers are released into the environment from the use and
deterioration of more than 5,000 asbestos products, including roofing,
thermal, and electrical insulation; cement pipe and sheet; flooring; gaskets;
plastics; and textile and paper products. Workers in asbestos insulation,
brake maintenance and repair, and building demolition jobs are exposed to
high levels of asbestos. The entire population may have been exposed to
some degree because asbestos has been so widely used. Because the use of
asbestos has been greatly restricted in the United States, exposure to the
general population has decreased. Nonetheless, workers employed in
construction trades, electricians, and carpenters can still experience high
levels of asbestos exposures through renovations, repairs, and demolitions.
Ceramic fibers are now used as insulation materials and are a replacement
for asbestos. Because they can withstand high temperatures, they are used
to line furnaces and kilns. These fibers cause lung cancer in experimental
animals. Silica dusts are associated with an excess risk of lung cancer in
humans and are found in industrial and occupational settings such as coal
mines, mills, granite quarrying and processing, crushed stone and related
industries, and sandblasting operations. Wood dust, associated with cancers
of the nasal cavities and sinuses, is a known carcinogen for unprotected
workers who are exposed regularly from sanding operations and furniture
manufacturing.
鈻? Dioxins
Dioxins are unwanted byproducts of chemical processes that contain chlorine
and hydrocarbons (substances that contain both hydrogen and carbon). There
are at least 100 different kinds of dioxins. They are not intentionally
manufactured by industry. They are produced by paper and pulp bleaching;
incineration of municipal, toxic, and hospital wastes; certain electrical fires;
and smelters (plants where metal is extracted from ores). They are also
found as a contaminant in some insecticides, herbicides, and wood
preservatives. Dioxins are widespread environmental contaminants. They
accumulate in fats and break down slowly. A particular dioxin that is likely to
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 13
AND THE
be carcinogenic to humans is called TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-
dioxin). TCDD is highly carcinogenic in animals, and, in highly exposed
workers, increased overall cancer death rates have been reported.
Fortunately, modifications of industrial processes such as bleaching and
incineration have resulted in reduced dioxin emissions and have lowered
dioxin levels in people. The general population is exposed to low levels of
TCDD primarily from eating dairy products, fish, and meat, including poultry.
鈻? Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
A number of studies show increased incidence of cancer (lung, skin, and
urinary cancers) in humans exposed to mixtures of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). The primary source of PAHs is from burning carbon-
containing compounds. PAHs in air are produced by burning wood and fuel
for homes. They are also contained in gasoline and diesel exhaust, soot,
coke, cigar and cigarette smoke, and charcoal-broiled foods. In addition, they
are the byproducts of open fires, waste incinerators, coal gasification, and
coke oven emissions. Foods that contain small amounts of PAHs include
smoked, barbecued, or charcoal-broiled foods, roasted coffees, and sausages.
鈻? Metals
Arsenic compounds are associated with many forms of skin, lung, bladder,
kidney, and liver cancers, particularly when high levels are consumed in
drinking water. In addition, occupational exposure to inhaled arsenic,
especially in mining and copper smelting, has been consistently associated
with an increased risk of lung cancer. Arsenic is also used in wood
preservatives, glass, herbicides, insecticides (ant killers), and pesticides,
and it is a general environmental contaminant of air, food, and water.
Beryllium compounds are known to cause lung cancer based primarily on
studies of workers in beryllium production facilities. These compounds are
used as metals for aerospace and defense industries; for electrical
components, X-ray tubes, nuclear weapons, aircraft brakes, rocket fuel
additives, light aircraft construction, and the manufacture of ceramics; and
as an additive to glass and plastics, dental applications, and golf clubs.
Industry is also increasingly using beryllium for fiber optics and cellular
network communication systems. Workers can be exposed through jobs
related to the above activities, as well as through recycling of computers, cell
phones, and other high-tech products. Outside of these industries, beryllium
exposure occurs primarily through the burning of coal and fuel oil. The
general population can be exposed to trace amounts of beryllium by inhaling
air and consuming food contaminated with beryllium residues. Small
concentrations have been reported in drinking water, food, and tobacco.
Studies of groups of workers show that cadmium metal and cadmium
compounds are associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. Workers
with the highest exposures are those involved in removing zinc and lead from
minerals, producing cadmium powders, welding cadmium-coated steel, and
14 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
METAL CANCERS PRESENT IN HUMAN WORKERS
CARCINOGEN? EXPOSED
Arsenic Skin, lung, bladder, Wood preservatives, Yes Smelting of ores containing
kidney, liver glass, pesticides arsenic, pesticide application,
and wood preservation
Beryllium Lung Nuclear weapons, Yes Beryllium ore miners and
rocket fuel, ceramics, alloy makers, phosphor
glass, plastic, manufacturers, ceramic
fiber optic products workers, missile technicians,
nuclear reactor workers,
electric and electronic
equipment workers, and
jewelers
Cadmium Lung Metal coatings, Yes Smelting of zinc and lead
plastic products, ores, producing, processing
batteries, fungicides and handling cadmium
powders, welding or remelting
of cadmium-coated steel, and
working with solders that
contain cadmium
Chromium Lung Automotive parts, Yes Stainless steel production and
floor covering,paper, welding, chromate production,
cement, asphalt chrome plating, ferrochrome
roofing; anti- alloys, chrome pigment, and
corrosive metal and tanning industries
plating
Lead Kidney, brain Cotton dyes, metal Probable carcinogen Construction work that
coating, drier in involves welding, cutting,
paints, varnishes, and brazing, or blasting on
pigment inks, certain lead paint surfaces; most
plastics, specialty smelter workers, including
glass lead smelters where lead
is recovered from batteries;
radiator repair shops
Nickel Nasal cavity, lung Steel, dental fillings, Nickel metal: Battery makers, ceramic
copper and brass, Probable carcinogen makers, electroplaters,
permanent magnets, enamellers, glass workers,
storage batteries, Nickel compounds: jewelers, metal workers,
glazes Yes nickel mine workers, refiners
and smelters, paint-related
workers and welders
working with solders that contain cadmium. Cadmium metal is primarily used
to coat metals to prevent corrosion. Other uses are in plastic and synthetic
products, in batteries, as stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride, and in fungicides.
The industrial processes involved in making these products release cadmium
into the air, surface water, ground water, and topsoil where it can be taken
up by both land and water plants and, in turn, transferred to animals.
Contaminated topsoil that allows uptake into tobacco plants may be indirectly
responsible for the greatest nonoccupational human exposure to cadmium鈥?
smoking. Food is the main source of human exposure to cadmium for
nonsmokers.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 15
AND THE
Some chromium compounds are known to cause lung cancer. The steel
industry is the major consumer of chromium. It is used for protection against
corrosion of metal accessories, including automotive parts, as well as for
electroplating, layering one metal over another. Electroplating converts
chromium 6, the carcinogenic form, to a noncarcinogenic form of chromium.
This means that workers who handle chromium 6 are at greater risk than the
general population. Other uses include nuclear and high-temperature
research; the textile and leather-tanning industry; pigments for floor covering
products, paper, cement, and asphalt roofing; and creating an emerald color
in colored glass. Chromium is widely distributed in the air, water, soil, and
food, and the entire population is probably exposed to some of these
compounds. The highest exposure occurs in occupations related to stainless
steel production, welding, chrome plating, and leather tanning. Typical levels
in most fresh foods are low.
Lead acetate and lead phosphate are likely to be human carcinogens
based on the evidence of kidney and brain tumors in animal studies. Lead
acetate is used in cotton dyes; as a coating for metals; as a drier in paints,
varnishes, and pigment inks; as a colorant in certain permanent hair dyes
(progressive dyes); in explosives; and in washes to treat poison ivy. Lead
phosphate is used as a stabilizer in certain plastics and specialty glass.
Primary exposures are through skin contact, eating, and inhaling.
Nickel and nickel compounds are associated with several kinds of cancers
in rats and mice. Studies in human populations link nickel exposure to
cancers of the nasal cavity, lung, and possibly the larynx (voice box). Nickel
is used in steel, dental fillings, copper and brass, permanent magnets,
storage batteries, and glazes. Because nickel is present in the air, water,
soil, food, and consumer products in the United States, we are exposed
through eating, breathing, and skin contact.
鈻? Diesel exhaust particles
The particles in diesel exhaust are suspected of being carcinogens because of
the elevated lung cancer rates found in occupational groups exposed to
diesel exhaust, such as railroad workers, mine workers, bus garage workers,
trucking company workers, car mechanics, and people who work around
diesel generators. Cancer risks from lower exposures in day-to-day living are
not known.
鈻? Toxins from fungi
Aflatoxins are cancer-causing substances produced by certain types of fungi
growing on food. Grains and peanuts are the most common foods on which
these fungi grow. Meat, eggs, and milk from animals that eat aflatoxin-
contaminated feed are other sources of exposure. Agricultural workers are
potentially at risk if they inhale contaminated airborne grain dust. Exposure
to high levels of aflatoxins increases the risk of liver cancer. Peanuts are
screened for aflatoxin in most countries, including the United States, before
16 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
processing. The risk of aflatoxin exposure is higher in developing countries
where there is no screening for the fungus.
鈻? Vinyl chloride
Vinyl chloride, a colorless gas, is a human carcinogen associated with lung
cancers and angiosarcomas (blood vessel tumors) of the liver and brain. It is
used almost exclusively in the United States by the plastics industry in
manufacturing many consumer products, including containers, wrapping film,
electrical insulation, water and drain pipes, hosing, flooring, windows, and
credit cards. Human exposure can occur primarily in workers in the plastic
industry, not by using the end products such as vinyl siding or hosing. The
major source of releases of vinyl chloride into the environment is believed to
be from the plastics industries. People living near a plastics plant are
exposed by breathing contaminated air, but the exposure of the general
population away from the plant is essentially zero.
鈻? Benzidine
Benzidine was one of the first chemicals recognized as being associated with
increased cancer risk in humans. As early as 1921, increased cases of
bladder cancer were reported to be associated with benzidine, a compound
used in the production of more than 250 benzidine-based dyes for textiles,
paper, and leather products. Human exposure to either benzidine or
benzidine-based dyes is now known to be carcinogenic. The dyes break
down into benzidine once inside the body. In most cases, dyes that
metabolize to benzidine are hazards only in the vicinity of dye and pigment
plants where wastes may escape or be discharged.
WHAT ARE SOME WAYS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF
DEVELOPING CANCER OR DETECT CANCER AT AN
EARLY STAGE?
A
t least two-thirds of the cases of cancer are caused by environmental
factors. Many of these cancers are linked to lifestyle factors that can be
modified, such as cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption,
poor diet, physical inactivity, and being overweight or obese. For example, one-
third of all the cancer deaths in this country could be prevented by eliminating
the use of tobacco products. After tobacco, being overweight or obese appears
to be the most important preventable cause of cancer.
In addition to lifestyle choices, precautions can be taken in the home and
workplace to reduce exposure to other harmful exposures. Here are some rules
you can follow to reduce your risk of developing cancer:
鈻? Don鈥檛 smoke cigarettes, pipes, or cigars. Don鈥檛 chew tobacco or dip snuff.
Avoid smoke-filled rooms. The use of tobacco products is linked to many
cancers.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 17
AND THE
鈻? Lose weight if you are overweight. Obesity is strongly linked to breast cancer
in older women and cancers of the endometrium, kidney, colon, and esophagus.
鈻? Exercise regularly, at least 30 minutes per day for most days of the week.
There is strong evidence that exercise by itself reduces the risk of colon and
breast cancer. Risk is decreased the most among very active people.
鈻? Avoid high-calorie, high-fat food. The chief causes of obesity are a lack of
physical activity and eating too much high-calorie food.
鈻? Avoid consuming large amounts of red and preserved meats, salt, and salt-
preserved foods. These may increase the risk of colorectal and stomach cancers.
鈻? Eat a daily diet that includes a variety of foods from plant sources, such as
fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and whole grain breads and cereals.
Fruits and vegetables contain substances (e.g., antioxidants) that help defend
against toxic agents and disease.
鈻? Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all, especially if you smoke. (One or two
alcoholic drinks a day is considered moderate.) Heavy drinking is linked to
cancers of the mouth, throat, esophagus, voice box, liver, and breast.
鈻? Avoid too much sunlight, particularly if you are fair skinned, by avoiding sun
exposure at midday (10 a.m.鈥?4 p.m., when sun exposure is strongest), wearing
protective clothing, and using sunscreen. Many of the more than one million
skin cancers diagnosed every year can be prevented by protection from the
sun鈥檚 rays. Avoid tanning beds and other artificial sun or UV exposure.
鈻? Avoid viral or bacterial infections:
鈥擠o not engage in unprotected or otherwise unsafe sexual intercourse that
may result in HIV, HPV, hepatitis B, or hepatitis C infection.
鈥擠o not use recreational injection drugs, such as heroin or cocaine, that
may result in HIV, hepatitis B, or hepatitis C infection.
鈥擥et vaccinated against hepatitis B infection, an easy and safe procedure if
you are 18 years of age or younger. Also, get vaccinated if you are over 18
and at risk of infection. At-risk people include health care workers, IV drug
users, and homosexual men. Currently, there is no vaccine for hepatitis C.
(For vaccination information, visit: www.cdc.gov.)
鈥擲eek medical attention for chronic stomach problems because they might
be caused by H. pylori infection, which can be treated.
鈻? Seek medical attention and adhere to recommended treatments if you have
HIV or hepatitis C infection. These infections increase your risk of developing
certain cancers.
18 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
鈻? Because repeated exposure to diagnostic X-rays could be harmful, talk to
your doctor about the need for each X-ray and the use of shields to protect
other parts of the body.
鈻? Check your home for high levels of radon. Radon levels in a home can be
greatly reduced by a professionally installed ventilation system in the basement.
(For more information, visit the Environmental Protection Agency Web site:
www.epa.gov/iaq/radon.)
鈻? Avoid contact with pesticides. Exposure to pesticides comes largely through
the skin. If contact occurs, wash up quickly.
鈻? Make sure the room is well ventilated when working with solvents. Work
outside, if possible, or open the windows.
鈻? If you work in an environment with high exposures to fine particles, fibers, or
dusts, wear the appropriate protective mask over your nose and mouth and
make sure it fits properly and does not obstruct your view.
鈻? Use good work practices when handling chemicals in the home or workplace.
Wear proper personal protective equipment, keep protective equipment well
maintained, clean spills immediately, keep work surfaces as free of dust and
chemicals as possible, and use wet cleaning methods to avoid generating dust.
鈻? Be aware that certain occupations are known to be associated with high
cancer risks. Some of these include painters, furniture makers, workers in
the iron, steel, coal, and rubber industries, and workers involved in boot and
shoe manufacture or repair. (For more information, visit:
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/append/appa.pdf or call the National
PAIN T Institute for Occupational Safety and Health toll-free number, 1-800-356-4674.)
鈻? Inquire at your workplace about Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs).
Varnis h
A MSDS is a document that manufacturers of chemical products are required to
develop for any product that contains hazardous substances. The MSDS
contains information on the toxicity of a substance, whether it is considered to
be cancer-causing, the recommended exposure levels of the ingredients in the
product, and appropriate precautions to take or appropriate recommended
personal protective equipment to wear. Employers are required to make the
MSDSs accessible to employees and to inform/train employees about the
information. (For information about possible workplace issues, visit the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Web site at
www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/chemical-safety or call the toll-free number,
1-800-356-4674.)
鈻? Make sure your employer has put in place appropriate engineering controls
such as local exhaust ventilation.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 19
AND THE
Detecting Cancers at an Early Stage
Sometimes exposures to toxic substances cannot be avoided. Certain diagnostic
procedures will not reduce the exposure to substances in the environment but
may detect cancers at an early stage before they spread to other parts of the
body.
鈻? Tell your health care provider about the chemicals you use at work or at
home. With this information, your health care provider can perform appropriate
medical screening tests for early detection of cancer.
鈻? Ask your physician if there are increased cancer risks associated with your
family or personal medical history or medical drugs you are taking. Appropriate
screening procedures may be advised.
鈻? Get a screening test on a regular basis for these cancers:
鈥擝reast: A mammogram, an X-ray of the breast, is the best method of
finding breast cancer before symptoms appear. Several organizations
recommend mammography screening every one to two years after age 40.
Women at higher than average risk of breast cancer should seek expert
advice about screening before age 40 and about the frequency of
screening.
鈥擟ervix: The Pap test or Pap smear is the most successful screening tool
used to screen for cancer of the cervix. Cells are collected from the cervix
and examined under a microscope to detect cancer or changes that may
lead to cancer. Many doctors recommend yearly Pap tests. Less frequent
screening is recommended by some organizations for women with at least
three consecutive negative exams.
鈥擟olon and Rectum: A number of screening tests are used to find colon and
rectal cancer. If a person has a family medical history of colorectal cancer
or is over the age of 50, a doctor may suggest one or more of these tests:
the fecal occult blood test checks for small amounts of blood in the stool;
a sigmoidoscopy is the use of a lighted tube to examine the rectum and
lower colon; a colonoscopy is performed to see the entire colon and
rectum. With either a sigmoidoscopy or a colonoscopy, abnormal tissue
can be removed and examined under a microscope.
Guidelines for the age and frequency of screening tests are constantly being
revised as new information becomes available. To find out more, see the Web
site: http://cancer.gov/cancer_information/testing.
20 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
鈻? Be alert for changes in your body. Cancer may cause a variety of symptoms.
Here are some:
鈥擳hickening or lump in any part of body
鈥擮bvious change in a wart or mole
鈥擜 sore that does not heal
鈥擭agging cough or hoarseness
鈥擟hanges in bowel or bladder habits
鈥擨ndigestion or difficulty swallowing
鈥擴nexplained changes in weight
鈥擴nusual bleeding or discharge
These symptoms are NOT always caused by cancer. It is important to see a
doctor about these or other physical changes that continue for some time.
However, certain cancers have no obvious symptoms, so routine physical exams
are recommended.
鈻? Stay informed and be proactive.
鈥擜sk your doctor questions.
鈥擨f you suspect that you are exposed to a carcinogen in your work or home
environment, try to find out more. Use the resources at the end of the
booklet to contact the agencies responsible for protecting the environment.
鈥擥et involved in activities aimed at reducing our exposure to cancer-causing
substances. Government agencies, industries, health professionals, and
individuals can all contribute to reducing the risks in the environment. For
example, in order to control the obestiy epidemic, efforts to increase
physical activity and promote healthy eating are needed in many parts of
society, including families, schools, day care centers, food companies,
restaurants, work sites, health care systems, and departments of
transportation and city-planning.
GOOD PLACES TO LOOK
For local environmental issues:
http://www.cdc.gov/other.htm#states
For workplace issues:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/chemical-safety
For health effects of ingredients in common household products:
http://householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 21
AND THE
HOW DO SCIENTISTS IDENTIFY CANCER-CAUSING
SUBSTANCES?
O
ver the last 30 years scientists have worked hard to identify substances
in the home, workplace, and general environment that cause cancer.
This is a challenging task because there are more than 100,000
chemicals commonly used by Americans in household cleaners, solvents,
pesticides, food additives, lawn care, and other products. Every year, another
1,000 or so are introduced. Furthermore, these are single substances and do
not take into account the mixtures and various combinations of commercial and
consumer products that Americans are exposed to every day. In addition, many
chemicals may be changed to different substances by the atmosphere, water,
plants, and by incineration or combustion.
Adding to the complexity, scientists know that cancer-causing substances are
sometimes created during the synthesis or combustion of other chemicals.
Dioxin is an example of this kind of unwanted contaminant (see page 13).
Further complicating the problem is the fact that besides man-made chemicals,
many natural products can also cause cancer. One example is aflatoxin,
discussed on page 16.
Evidence for identifying cancer-causing substances comes from three sources:
human studies, animal studies, and laboratory experiments with human
cells. Evidence from each of these sources is important in helping public health
officials make decisions about whether exposure to certain substances needs to
be reduced or eliminated. The more information available, the more likely it is
that they will be able to identify which substances are carcinogens.
Human Studies
The most certain method of identifying cancer-causing substances is to observe
whether they have caused cancer in people. Epidemiologists design studies that
follow certain populations over time to observe whether a specific agent (e.g.,
arsenic or benzene) or exposure (e.g., sunlight or smoking) is likely to cause
cancer. Environmental causes of cancer have frequently been first noticed in
the workplace. This is because workers in certain occupations have higher
exposures to particular chemicals and for longer periods of time than the
general population. The International Agency for Research on Cancer
(http://www.iarc.fr), an agency of the World Health Organization, classified
certain occupations as associated with cancer-causing exposures because of
the increased incidence of cancers in these settings. Some of these include
painters, furniture makers, workers in the iron, steel, coal, and rubber
industries, and workers involved in boot and shoe manufacture or repair. This
knowledge has helped these industries and public health specialists develop
processes and safety procedures designed to minimize worker exposure to
cancer-causing substances. So the risk is less now than in previous years.
22 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
However, health agencies would fail in their responsibility to prevent cancer if
they merely document workplace-related cancers, because they would find out
about cancer risks only after many people developed symptoms of the disease,
sometimes as long as 20 to 30 years after the exposure. Other epidemiology
studies compare the exposure histories of people who have developed cancer to
comparison groups of people who have not developed cancer at a particular
point in time. Such studies allow researchers to look at a wide range of
exposures that may have occurred in the past in a variety of settings, not just at
those that occurred in a particular occupational setting. However, these studies
may miss some important links between exposures and cancer. It is often
difficult to determine what chemicals people were exposed to many years
earlier, to what degree they were exposed, and which specific ones are harmful.
But because we cannot test potential cancer-causing agents with people,
observational epidemiological studies are the best source of data on real world
exposures and often do provide important clues.
Other testing methods involving animals and laboratory experiments are also
important. They allow scientists to anticipate potential cancer-causing
exposures before they cause large numbers of human cancers.
Animal Studies
Mice or rats are most commonly used to test for cancer-causing substances
because they are smaller, easier to handle, and more economical than larger
animals. Also, they are generally similar to humans in their response to
carcinogens. Most major forms of human cancer have been reproduced in such
animals through exposure to chemical carcinogens. Because the lifetime of
rodents is only two to three years, they generally provide information about the
cancer-causing potential of test materials relatively quickly. Special strains of
mice and rats have been developed to be particularly suitable for cancer
testing. However, differences in animal and human digestive physiology
complicate the relevance of diet studies in animals.
Laboratory Experiments
As part of an ongoing effort to reduce the use of animals in testing for cancer,
researchers are using human cells grown in the laboratory. Cells exposed to
potential carcinogens are monitored to see whether molecular changes
characteristic of cancer cells develop. Besides reducing the use of animals,
these kinds of studies can be done more quickly and economically and can be
useful in evaluating whether to perform the studies in rats and mice. Results
from laboratory experiments also provide clues to epidemiologists about which
hypotheses to test in human population studies (e.g., human observational
studies evaluating the effect of exposure to formaldehyde and methylene
chloride were initiated because of data from laboratory and animal studies).
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 23
AND THE
HOW WELL DO ANIMAL TESTS PREDICT WHETHER A
SUBSTANCE CAN CAUSE CANCER IN HUMANS?
O
f the approximately 200 agents known to cause cancer in humans,
nearly all have also been shown to cause cancer in rats or mice.
On the other hand, we do not know how many of the several hundred
other chemicals that cause cancer in animals are also human carcinogens. In
some instances, positive tests with mice or rats were later confirmed by the
occurrence of cancer in exposed humans. In other instances, studies in human
populations have failed to confirm the positive tests in mice. Most importantly,
however, for many chemicals suspected of causing cancer in humans, no human
studies have yet been done, so we do not know for sure whether these chemicals
do or do not cause cancer in humans.
Because it is generally true that materials that cause cancer in one type of animal
are found to cause cancer in others, public health officials must heed the
warnings provided by animal tests. Positive tests in animals are often used as a
basis for reducing or eliminating human exposure to probable cancer-causing
agents. For instance, regulatory controls to reduce human exposures were put in
place when drinking water disinfectant byproducts and several solvents were
shown to be carcinogenic in rats and mice.
In a few cases, the evidence from laboratory experiments, along with knowledge
of the behavior of related compounds known to be carcinogenic, was strong
enough to classify a chemical as a known or probable human carcinogen. For
example, experiments using human cells were used to classify more than 200
benzidine-based dyes as human carcinogens. Benzidine had already been
classified as a known human carcinogen and scientists suspected that any dye
that released benzidine inside the human body would also be a human
carcinogen. When human cells grown in the laboratory were exposed to a
particular dye, they were able to test whether benzidine was released. Those
that did were classified as human carcinogens.
In another example, one piece of data that led to the classification of ethylene
oxide (used as a starting material in the production of other chemicals and as a
disinfectant and sterilant) as a known human carcinogen was from laboratory
experiments showing that it caused DNA damage in blood cells from exposed
workers.
Although these kinds of studies reduce our reliance on animals in toxicology
research, the testing of potential carcinogens in rodents remains an important
part of cancer prevention strategies. However, all scientific data available for a
potential carcinogen are important. The combination of human studies, animal
studies, and laboratory experiments provides scientists with the most complete
understanding of chemical risks of cancer.
24 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
WE OFTEN READ ABOUT MICE OR RATS BEING GIVEN
DOSAGES MUCH HIGHER THAN THOSE TO WHICH HUMANS
NORMALLY WOULD BE EXPOSED. ARE HIGH DOSES REALLY
USED AND, IF SO, WHY?
Y
es, high doses are often used to increase the ability of the tests to detect
cancer-causing potential.
Large numbers of people are exposed to low doses of chemicals, but the total
impact may not be small at all. For example, a carcinogen might cause one
tumor in every 10,000 people exposed to it. But exposure of 230 million
Americans would result in 23,000 cancers鈥攁 public health disaster. To
detect such a low cancer rate, we would need tens of thousands of mice. This
would cost approximately $50 million for every chemical tested. Not only
would this be expensive and very time-consuming, but it would use far too
many animals.
However, using high dosages, any potential cancer-causing effects are more
likely to be detected even in small groups of rodents because the cancer rate
among the test animals is increased correspondingly. If 20 or 30 of our test
group of 50 mice developed cancers at much higher doses while the group
not receiving the chemical had only a few cancers, we could conclude that
the chemical was capable of causing cancer. When high doses do not cause
cancer in animals, we also have greater assurance that the chemical will not
cause cancer in people.
HOW DO SCIENTISTS DECIDE WHICH SUBSTANCES TO
TEST IN ANIMALS, HUMAN LABORATORY CELLS, OR
HUMAN POPULATION STUDIES?
Strategies for Testing in Animals or Human Laboratory Cells
B
ecause resources are limited, scientists must decide which substances out
of thousands of candidates should be selected for testing in animals or
human cells. The tests are costly and time-consuming. For example,
determining whether a chemical causes cancer in rats or mice can cost several
million dollars and take several years to complete. Three factors generally
guide the decision to test a substance:
鈻? The number of people exposed. We want to test those chemicals that
affect a large number of people or those for which the exposure levels have
been unusually high. Pesticides, for example, fit both categories: they
potentially affect a large number of people because of trace amounts on foods
and their use in or around the home, and exposure levels are high in farming-
related occupations.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 25
AND THE
鈻? Previous data. This could be a report that a chemical causes alterations in
human DNA in laboratory cells, or a report that people exposed to a particular
chemical in the workplace or at a specific geographical location are getting
cancer at higher rates than expected. This kind of information provides
important clues for decisions about animal testing. Before testing in animals
was done, dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were first suspected to
be carcinogenic based on studies on human and animal cells.
鈻? Public concern. Chromium and some pesticides are examples of chemicals
that were first brought to the attention of public health officials by a group of
concerned citizens. The National Toxicology Program has a Web site available
to the public to suggest agents suspected of causing cancer:
http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov; click on 鈥淗ow to Nominate Compounds.鈥?
Strategies for Carrying Out Large Population Studies
Similar considerations guide epidemiologists as to whether to begin large
population studies. Some of these factors include:
鈻? Data from animal studies suggesting a cancer-exposure link (e.g., vinyl
chloride) or a related agent, which raises suspicion (e.g., acrylonitrile was
studied because of its structural similarity to vinyl chloride)
鈻? Suggestive results from other epidemiologic studies (large population
studies)
鈻? Biological mechanisms of an exposure that suggest a possible link to cancer
鈻? Pockets of cancer that cluster in a particular town or place or unusual case
reports
鈻? Cancer trends鈥攔ates that change over time or with location
鈻? Changes in cancer rates within a population upon migration to new area
鈻? Introduction of a new exposure or technology for which epidemiologic data
are needed, or an unusual exposure pattern that needs evaluation.
WHAT FACTORS DO SCIENTISTS CONSIDER IN
DETERMINING THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT
CANCER-CAUSING SUBSTANCES?
E
xposures to some substances are associated with high risks for getting
cancer, while exposures to other substances carry very little risk. It is
important to know that just being exposed to a chemical agent does not
mean that you will get cancer. Risk assessment is the term used to determine
the relationship between exposure to a substance and the likelihood of
developing disease from that exposure. Risk assessment is a critical tool used
by public health agencies in making decisions about whether exposure to
26 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
certain substances needs to be reduced or eliminated. Three factors are
important to consider in risk assessment:
鈻? Potency: Potency is a measure of the capacity of a given amount of the
substance to cause cancer. In some cases, exposures to small amounts are
sufficient, whereas for others much higher exposures are needed. One potent
carcinogen is the solvent benzene, which increases the risk for leukemia from
small amounts in the air. Others, like DDT and chloroform, require higher
exposures to increase the cancer risk by the same amount.
鈻? Type of Exposure: Public health agencies classify substances as known or
suspected human carcinogens based on evidence of cancer from at least one
type of exposure, such as:
鈥擶orkplace exposures鈥攅ither high short-term or long-term exposures
鈥擟ontinuous low-level exposure or occasional exposure to carcinogens in
air, food, water, drugs, or consumer products
鈥擲ingle, acute exposures following industrial accidents or similar incidents
鈻? Dose Response: It is important to know whether the cancer risk increases
as the exposure levels increase. This is known as a dose-response trend. Some
dose-response trends are linear, which is often considered strong evidence for
cancer risk. For example, if 10 units of a substance causes cancer in 1 out of
1,000 people, then 1 unit of exposure would cause cancer in 1 out of 10,000
people. In a linear dose response, the risk would continue to decrease as the
exposure decreased all the way to zero. This means that a tiny risk of cancer is
predicted for any exposure, no matter how small.
However, for some carcinogens, there may be an exposure level below which
there is no detectable increase in risk. This type of dose response is sometimes
called threshold dose response.
Some exposures cause cancer only among susceptible individuals. Factors such
as age, gender, general health, state of the immune system, smoking history,
diet, childhood exposures, and patterns of genetic alterations may play a role in
susceptibility. A chemical may be harmless unless a person has one or more
factors that allow the chemical to be changed in the body to a more hazardous
form. Risk assessment involves understanding the interactions of many
susceptibility factors.
ACCEPTABLE RISK LEVELS
T
he risk level considered acceptable by regulatory agencies for a linear dose
response ranges from 1 cancer in every million people exposed to
1 in every 1,000 people exposed. Acceptable risks are generally higher for
exposure in the workplace than in the general environment. For example,
allowable air levels of benzene in the workplace are approximately 40 times
higher than allowed in the general environment.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 27
AND THE
HOW DO PUBLIC HEALTH OFFICIALS SET ACCEPTABLE
EXPOSURE LEVELS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS?
Linear Dose Response
O
ne of the first considerations by regulatory agencies such as the
Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Drug Administration, and
Occupational Safety and Health Administration is to determine whether
a carcinogen exhibits linear or threshold-like dose-response behavior. Even
though government scientists conduct rigorous scientific reviews to evaluate
everything that is known about a cancer-causing substance, there is frequently
not enough information to distinguish between these two kinds of dose
responses. Unless there is compelling evidence for a threshold-like mechanism,
agencies assume, to protect the public health, that the dose response is linear.
This means that they assume that any exposure, no matter how small, would
have some risk.
Threshold-Like Dose Response
In the case of carcinogens exhibiting threshold-like dose responses, other
factors such as age, gender, genetic makeup, and diet are taken into
consideration. For example, the potentially greater health effects on children of
pesticide residues on food are taken into consideration when setting acceptable
exposure levels of pesticides. Moreover, if the cancer testing is done in rats and
mice, scientists consider the possibility that people are more sensitive than rats
or mice to the cancer-causing effects of a particular chemical. These factors
can result in setting acceptable levels of exposure as much as 1,000 times
below the level that causes a substantial increase in cancer in rodents. This
approach gives more confidence that the acceptable level of exposure set by a
regulatory agency will indeed protect the public health.
Risks Versus Benefits
Another factor adding to the difficulty of regulating the exposure to
environmental chemicals is that many substances that may cause cancer in
people also have some benefits.
Pharmaceuticals represent the best example of when benefit/risk analyses are
routinely conducted. In the case of cancer chemotherapy drugs, we know that
while they may be effective in treating or preventing cancer, they also may
increase the risk of second cancers developing years after the treatment.
However, since cancer is often immediately life-threatening, the benefits usually
outweigh the risks. Tamoxifen, for example, which is effective in preventing the
recurrence of breast cancer in many women, also increases the risk of uterine
cancer, blood clots, and strokes. The benefits and risks were rigorously
analyzed by the Food and Drug Administration, the National Cancer Institute,
and the World Health Organization, and they all concluded that the benefits of
tamoxifen for women who have had breast cancer or for a relatively small
28 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
number of women who are at high risk of developing breast cancer strongly
outweigh the serious risks associated with the drug.
Another example is pesticides. The use of pesticides has increased crop yields
and has significantly benefited agricultural production. Yet there is concern over
potential health effects of pesticide residues on foods consumed by humans.
These potential risks are reduced by setting maximum residue levels on fruits,
vegetables, and other produce and by using pesticides that are not
carcinogenic.
Uncertainty and Public Debate
Public health officials are in the best position to accurately identify carcinogens
when evidence is available from all levels鈥攈uman, animal, and laboratory, but
this is seldom the case. Therefore, they often have to exercise scientific
judgment and make decisions in the face of uncertainty. In these circumstances,
public health agencies operate under the principle that public health protection
is paramount. These decisions are debated in open public forums involving
scientists from diverse disciplines, and interested members of industry,
environmental groups, and the public.
Public health agencies attempt to convey this uncertainty by placing the
substances in categories depending on the strength of the evidence. The
categories used by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services鈥? (DHHS)
Report on Carcinogens are 鈥渒nown to be鈥? and 鈥渞easonably anticipated to be鈥?
human carcinogens.
PROTECTION OF PUBLIC HEALTH
I
n the face of uncertainty, public health agencies operate under the principle that
protection of public health is paramount. This means that acceptable levels of
exposure are set as much as 1,000 times below the level that causes a
substantial increase of cancer in laboratory animals.
HOW HAVE CANCER TRENDS CHANGED OVER THE
PAST FEW YEARS?
T
he yearly rate of new cancer cases increased between 1975 and 1992, as
the graph on page 30 shows. There is some evidence of a decline after
1992 followed by stable rates since 1995. In this graph, scientists use the
term incidence to describe the number of people that develop cancer out of
100,000 people within a certain period of time.
Increases in incidence rates are sometimes difficult to interpret. An increase in
the number of new cases of cancer may result from exposure to a harmful
substance in the environment. But increasing incidence may also reflect
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 29
AND THE
changes in clinical practice in hospitals or doctors鈥? offices, which result in more
cases being found鈥攑erhaps even some cases that would never produce
symptoms of the disease. Decreases in incidence, on the other hand, are
probably due to a decreased exposure to harmful substances, or to early
detection and removal of precancerous growths.
For cancer deaths, the graph on page 31 shows that the rates increased
steadily from 1975 to 1990, stabilized between 1990 to 1994, then declined on
average 1.4 percent per year from 1994 to 1998. Since 1998, the rates again
stabilized. In this graph, mortality is the number of cancer deaths that occur
out of 100,000 within a certain period of time.
This is very good news because decreases in mortality are the best measure
of progress against cancer. Mortality rates would be expected to decrease with
a reduction in risk factors (stopping smoking and less exposure to certain
pesticides, organic solvents, and asbestos fibers), successful early screening
efforts (mammography, Pap test, and fecal occult blood test), or better
treatments.
Changing Rates for Specific Cancers
The incidence and mortality rates for some cancers have been declining. These
include testicular, childhood, cervical, stomach, throat, and cancers of the
mouth (lip, tongue, gums). For example, in the last 25 years, mortality rates for
childhood cancer (ages 1鈥?14) and cervical cancer have nearly halved.
Improvements in treatment are thought to account for the reduction in
childhood cancer deaths, while increased screening (Pap smears) accounts for
the decrease in cervical cancer rates. The incidence and mortality from
U.S. CANCER INCIDENCE BY YEAR
550
Cases per 100,000 People
500
450
400
350
300
0
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
Source: http://seer.cancer.gov
30 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
U.S. CANCER MORTALITY BY YEAR
225
Deaths per 100,000 People
200
175
0 1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
Source: http://seer.cancer.gov
stomach and colon cancer and cancers of the mouth and throat have also
decreased over this time period.
On the other hand, the incidence and mortality rates for certain cancers are not
improving. From 1973 to 1999, the incidence rates for cancers of the breast,
lung (in females), bladder, prostate, kidney, liver, esophagus, and brain
increased, as did non-Hodgkin鈥檚 lymphoma and melanomas of the skin. The
larger percentage increase in lung cancer incidence rates for women compared
to men reflects the fact that women began smoking later in the century than
men鈥攆ew women smoked before the 1960s. Death rates for melanomas of the
skin, non-Hodgkin鈥檚 lymphoma, and liver, kidney, lung, and brain cancers have
also increased over the 26-year period.
The more recent trends from 1992鈥?2000 are shown in the graph on page 32.
Today, for women, over half of the new cancer cases and deaths are due to
breast, lung, and colon/rectal cancers. For men, more than half of the new
cancer cases and deaths are from prostate, lung, and colon/rectal cancers.
Scientists are eager to understand why these trends are occurring, in order to
develop effective strategies for preventing cancers.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 31
AND THE
U.S. TRENDS IN RATES OF NEW CANCERS AND CANCER DEATHS: 1992鈥?2000
Rates of New Cancers: Annual Percent Change Rates of Cancer Deaths: Annual Percent Change
+2.1%
Liver /Bile Duct
Liver/Bile Duct +3.9%
+0.7%
Lung (Females)
Thyroid +3.4%
+0.6%
Esophagus
Melanoma of the Skin +2.5%
+0.4%
Thyroid
Kidney/Renal +1.3%
0.0%
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
Testis +1.3%
32
鈥?0.1%
Pancreas
Breast (Females) +0.8%
鈥?0.1%
Melanoma of the Skin
+0.3%
Esophagus
鈥?0.3%
Urinary Bladder
Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma 0.0%
鈥?0.3%
Kidney/Renal
Lung (Females) 0.0%
鈥?0.3%
Myeloma
Urinary Bladder 鈥?0.1%
鈥?0.3%
Uterus
鈥?0.1%
Uterus
鈥?0.5%
Leukemia
鈥?0.4%
Pancreas
鈥?0.7%
Brain/Nervous System
鈥?0.4%
Hodgkin Lymphoma
鈥?0.8%
Ovary
鈥?0.5%
Brain/Nervous System
鈥?1.0%
鈥?0.6% All Cancers
All Except Lung
鈥?1.0%
Testis
Colon/Rectum 鈥?0.6%
鈥?0.7% All Except Lung 鈥?1.1%
All Cancers
鈥?1.7%
Colon/Rectum
Myeloma 鈥?0.7%
鈥?1.8%
Lung (Males)
Ovary 鈥?0.8%
鈥?2.0%
Larynx (Voice Box)
Stomach 鈥?1.3%
鈥?2.4%
Breast (Females)
鈥?1.3%
Leukemia
鈥?2.7%
Throat & Mouth (Oral)
Throat & Mouth (Oral) 鈥?2.0%
鈥?2.8%
Stomach
Lung (Males) 鈥?2.3%
Cervix 鈥?2.9%
Cervix 鈥?2.5%
Prostate 鈥?3.4%
Larynx (Voice Box) 鈥?2.6%
Hodgkin Lymphoma 鈥?3.7%
Prostate 鈥?3.1%
鈥?8 鈥?4 鈥?2 0 2 4 8
鈥?8 鈥?4 鈥?2 0 2 4 8
Annual Percent Change
Annual Percent Change
CANCER
How to read these charts: The charts show the percentage changes in cancer rates for several cancers from 1992鈥?2000. The
chart on the left shows the percentage changes in the rates of new cancer cases, and the one on the right shows the changes in
the rates of cancer deaths. Cancer rates in blue have decreased over this time, while those in red have increased. For example,
AND THE
the incidence rates of liver, thyroid, and melanoma cancers had the greatest percentage increase; the death rates for liver cancer,
lung cancer in women, and esophageal cancers showed the largest increase. However, both the incidence and mortality rates for
prostate and lung cancers (males) have decreased.
Source: SEER (http://seer.cancer.gov) and NCHS (www.cdc.gov/nchs).
ENVIRONMENT
WHERE CAN I GO FOR MORE INFORMATION?
T
he resources listed below are available to answer your questions and help
you stay informed about our changing environment with its associated
health risks.
Federal Government Agencies That Regulate Exposures to
Carcinogens
There are several Federal agencies that are charged with establishing
permissible levels of exposure to chemical substances in the general
environment, home, and workplace, and in food, water, and pharmaceuticals.
These include the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA). In addition, the Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has broad jurisdiction over hazardous waste
issues.
鈻? Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC): http://www.cpsc.gov
CPSC is an independent Federal regulatory agency responsible for reducing
the risk of injuries and deaths associated with consumer products.
The consumer hotline is 1-800-638-2772 or the toll-free TTY number is
1-800-638-8270.
鈻? Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): http://www.epa.gov EPA is a
government regulatory agency charged with protecting human health and
safeguarding the natural environment.
鈥擮ne-stop source for environmental information where you live:
http://ww.epa.gov/enviro
鈥擫earn about the environmental resources available in your community:
http://www.epa.gov/epahome/comm.htm
鈥擡PA National Pesticide Information Center: http://npic.orst.edu.
1-800-858-7378
鈥擡PA Superfund Hotline for hazardous waste: 1-800-775-5037 or
703-413-0223. The toll-free TTY number is 1-800-553-7672.
鈥擥eneral information about identifying and cleaning up hazardous waste
sites: http://www.epa.gov/superfund/about.htm
鈥擜 list of hazardous waste sites:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/index/htm
鈥擜 list of common contaminants in hazardous waste sites and their
health effects:
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/er/hazsubs/sources/htm
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 33
AND THE
鈥擣or more information about radon in your home, visit the EPA radon Web
site: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/radon or the National Radon Information
line: 1-800-SOS-RADON (1-800-767-7236)
鈻? Food and Drug Administration (FDA): http://www.fda.gov FDA helps safe
and effective products reach the market in a timely way and monitors the
products for safety after they are in use.
鈥擳he National Center for Toxicological Research: http://www.fda.gov/nctr
鈥擣DA Information: www.cfsan.fda.gov or 1-888-463-6332
鈻? Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA):
http://www.osha.gov OSHA is a Federal regulatory agency under the U.S.
Department of Labor whose mission is to prevent work-related injuries,
illnesses, and deaths. To report accidents, unsafe working conditions, or
safety and health violations: 1-800-321-6742. OSHA also has a toll-free TTY
number: 1-877-889-5627. Office of Communications: 202-693-1999.
Individuals can also contact their local area offices.
鈻? United States Department of Agriculture (USDA):
http://www.usda.gov/services.html The USDA has several agencies and
programs related to agricultural products including food safety inspection,
animal and plant inspection service, nutrition programs, and agricultural
research programs.
鈻? Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR):
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov ATSDR is an agency of the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services (DHHS) and is the principal Federal agency
involved with hazardous waste issues and has fact sheets on various
chemicals/agents. ATSDR Information Center: 1-888-422-8737
In many cases, more than one agency has the regulatory authority for a specific
chemical, depending on its use and potential for human exposure. For example,
pesticides are regulated by the EPA, FDA, USDA, and OSHA.
Other Federal Agencies
Other Federal agencies such as the NIEHS, NCI, and Centers for Disease
Control (which includes the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health and the National Center for Environmental Health) are charged with
generating scientific information that helps regulatory agencies make sound
regulatory decisions.
鈻? National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS):
www.niehs.nih.gov NIEHS was established to reduce human illness caused
by unhealthy substances in the environment. Today, NIEHS supports
extensive biomedical research, prevention, and intervention programs, as
well as training, education, and community outreach efforts.
34 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
鈥擭IEHS Office of Communications for public inquiries: 1-919-541-3345.
National Toxicology Program (NTP): http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov The
NTP is an interagency program that coordinates toxicology research and
testing activities within the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services. The NTP evaluates agents of public health concern by developing
and applying tools of modern toxicology and molecular biology and
publishes the biennial Report on Carcinogens. To contact the NTP Office of
Liaison and Scientific Review: 919-541-0530 (phone); 919-541-0295 (fax);
liaison@starbase.niehs.nih.gov (e-mail).
鈻? National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov NCI coordinates
the National Cancer Program, which conducts and supports cancer research,
training, and health information dissemination throughout the country.
鈥擣act Sheets available on: http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact
鈥擭CI Publications. NCI鈥檚 on-line ordering service:
https://cissecure.nci.nih.gov/ncipubs
鈥擯ress Releases are available on NCI鈥檚 main Web site at
http://newscenter.cancer.gov Press Office: 1-301-496-6641.
鈥擭CI鈥檚 SEER Program is the most authoritative source of information
on cancer incidence and survival in the United States.
http://seer.cancer.gov
鈥擣or geographic patterns of rates of cancer death from 1950鈥?1994 for over
40 cancers: http://www3.cancer.gov/atlasplus
鈥擭CI鈥檚 toll-free Cancer Information Service for information about cancer and
to request publications: 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237). The toll-free
TTY number is 1-800-332-8615.
鈻? Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): http://www.cdc.gov
CDC is an agency of DHHS that promotes health and quality of life by
preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability. Components of the
CDC include:
鈥擭ational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH):
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh A Federal agency responsible for conducting
research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related
disease and injury. 1-800-356-4674
鈥擭ational Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) Health Line:
http://www.cdc.gov/nceh 1-888-232-6789
鈥擭ational Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals:
www.cdc.gov/nceh/dls/report 1-866-670-6052
鈥擥IS (geographic information systems) and public health Web site:
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/gis.htm
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 35
AND THE
鈥擭ational Center for Health Statistics (NCHS): http://www.cdc.gov/nchs
NCHS collects data to monitor the nation鈥檚 health.
鈥擟DC public inquiries: 1-800-311-3435
鈥擭ational Program of Cancer Registries: www.cdc.gov/cancer/npcr Funds
statewide cancer registries in 45 states, the District of Columbia, and
several territories, and serves as a valuable resource for citizens
concerned about a possible increased occurrence of cancer in their
communities.
鈥擳he National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program:
www.cdc.gov/cancer/nbccedp/index.htm Provides free screening exams
to poor, uninsured women in all 50 states.
鈥擮ffice of Smoking and Health: www.cdc.gov/tobacco/mission.htm
鈥擠ivision of Cancer Prevention and Control: www.cdc.gov/cancer
鈥擲tate health departments: http://www.cdc.gov/other.htm#states
鈥擯ublic health laboratories:
http://www.aphl.org/Public_Health_Labs/index.cfm
State Government Agencies
State government agencies also play a key role in establishing allowable
exposure levels. The organizations dealing with environmental health issues
vary widely among different states, but they usually include a Department of
Health, a Department of the Environment, and an Occupational Health
Department. For example, in North Carolina, there is a Department of
Environment and Natural Resources and a Department of Health and Human
Services. In addition, most county health offices can direct you to the
appropriate state officials for obtaining information about local emissions of
chemicals and exposure prevention rules and guidelines. State and local health
departments: http://www.cdc.gov/other.htm#states
Cancer Statistics
Resources describing the trends over the past several years in new cases of
cancer diagnosed or deaths due to cancer are listed below:
鈻? NCI鈥檚 SEER Program is the most authoritative source of information on
cancer incidence and survival in the United States:
http://seer.cancer.gov
鈻? National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS): This branch of the CDC
collects national statistics to monitor the nation鈥檚 health:
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs 301-458-4800
36 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
鈻? National Program of Cancer Registries, which funds statewide cancer
registries in 45 states, the District of Columbia, and several territories,
serves as a valuable resource for citizens concerned about a possible
increased occurrence of cancer in their communities:
www.cdc.gov/cancer/npcr
鈻? For geographic patterns of rates of cancer death from 1950鈥?1994 for over
40 cancers: http://www3.cancer.gov/atlasplus
General Cancer Information
鈻? NCI鈥檚 on-line library of cancer information:
http://cancer.gov/cancer_information/cancer_literature
鈻? The National Library of Medicine, the world鈥檚 largest medical library:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov
Other Resources
鈻? The National Library of Medicine has compiled a list of the ingredients in
common household products and their health effects:
http://householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov
鈻? International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): http://www.iarc.fr
IARC is part of the World Health Organization and its mission is to
coordinate and conduct research on the causes of human cancer. IARC
publishes a series of reports that focuses on the cancer risks associated with
particular kinds of agents such as industrial chemicals, viruses, and ionizing
radiation.
鈻? World Health Organization鈥檚 document: 鈥淒iet, nutrition and the prevention
of chronic diseases鈥?:
http://www.who.int/hpr/nph/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf
鈻? American Cancer Society鈥檚 nutrition and diet guidelines:
http://www.cancer.org/eprise/main/docroot/PED/
ped_3_1x_ACS_Guidelines?sitearea=PED
鈻? Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA): http://www.msha.gov An
agency of the Department of Labor, MSHA鈥檚 mission is to protect the health
and safety of the miner.
General Health Information
鈻? National Institutes of Health (NIH): http://www.nih.gov/health A single
access point for consumer health resources at the NIH, the DHHS agency
responsible for biomedical research. Public inquiries: 301-496-4000
鈻? Healthfinder: http://www.healthfinder.gov A Web site created by DHHS to
help consumers quickly find health and human services information.
鈻? Medline: http://www.nlm.nih.gov The world鈥檚 most extensive collection of
published medical information, coordinated by the National Library of
Medicine.
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 37
AND THE
GLOSSARY
Anal cancer: Cancer that begins in the anus, the opening at the end of the
large intestine where the waste from the body鈥檚 digestive system passes out of
the body.
Asbestos: Hard, nonflammable fibers used for insulating buildings.
Bacteria: Made of a single cell, bacteria are the simplest organisms found in
nature. Bacterial infections can often be treated with antibiotics.
Benign tumor: Not cancerous; tumor does not invade nearby tissue or spread
to other parts of the body.
Cancer: Diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells
can invade nearby tissues and can spread through the bloodstream and
lymphatic system to other parts of the body.
Carcinogen: A substance that causes cancer.
Carcinoma: A cancerous growth made up of epithelial cells: cells from tissues
that form the covering around organs, such as lung, liver, or breast, or the
lining of blood vessels.
Cell: The basic unit of all living things. Organs are made up of millions of cells.
Each cell contains several smaller components enclosed in a membrane.
Coke: Solid black material similar to charcoal that is left after burning coal.
Coke is used as fuel and in making steel.
Colorectal cancer: Cancers that begin in either the colon or the rectum are
called colorectal cancer. Together, the colon and rectum make up the large
intestine, a long, muscular tube where the waste from the body鈥檚 digestive
system is stored until it passes out of the body through the anus. The colon
makes up the first four to five feet of the large intestine and the rectum is the
last four to five inches.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule inside the cell that carries genetic
information and is passed on from one generation to the next.
Endometrium: Tissue lining the wall of a woman鈥檚 uterus, the organ where a
baby grows.
Epidemiology: The study of the patterns of diseases in human populations and
the factors that influence the patterns.
Familial cancers: Cancers that occur frequently in certain cancer-prone
families in which a mutated gene that is associated with a high risk of
developing cancer is passed on from one generation to the next.
38 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
Focus group: A qualitative research technique in which an experienced
moderator leads about 8鈥?10 participants through a semi-structured discussion
on a selected topic, allowing them to talk freely and spontaneously.
Fungicide: An agent that destroys fungi.
Gene: Pieces of DNA, or heredity units found inside cells passed from parent to
offspring. Genes contain the information for making proteins.
Herbicide: An agent that destroys weeds.
Incidence: The number of people who develop a disease divided by the number
of people at risk of developing the disease in a specific time period.
Insecticide: An agent that destroys insects.
Leukemia: A type of cancer that forms from cells in the blood and bone
marrow, including leukocytes or white blood cells that help the body fight
infections and other diseases.
Linear dose response: A type of response in which the cancer risk changes at
the same rate as the exposure鈥攊f the exposure increases, the cancer risk
increases at the same rate. A cancer risk is present at all levels of exposure,
even very low ones.
Lymphatic system: The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white
blood cells, which fight infection and other diseases. This system includes the
bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, and a network of thin tubes
that carry lymph and white blood cells to all the tissues of the body.
Lymphoma: Cancer that arises in cells of the lymphatic system.
Malignant tumor: A cancerous growth with a tendency to invade and destroy
nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.
Melanoma: A malignant form of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the
cells that produce pigment. Melanoma usually begins in a mole.
Mortality: The number of people who die from a disease divided by the number
of people at risk of dying from the disease in a specific time period.
Oncogene: An altered gene that normally directs cell growth. An oncogene
promotes uncontrolled growth of cancer. Alterations can be inherited, occur
randomly, or be caused by an environmental exposure to carcinogens.
Pesticide: An agent used to destroy pests of any sort; the term includes
fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides.
Proteins: Molecules in the cell that perform a wide variety of functions, such
as protection (skin), support/movement (muscles), transportation
(e.g., hemoglobin transports oxygen), and activation of the chemical reactions
that sustain life (e.g., enzymes for digesting food).
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 39
AND THE
Sarcoma: A cancer of the bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other
connective or supportive tissue.
Smelters: Plants where valuable metals are extracted from rocks or minerals.
Susceptible: A term used to describe someone who is more likely to develop a
disease.
Threshold dose response: A type of response in which, at very low exposures,
there appears to be no detectable increased risk of disease; there is a threshold
below which no risk is detected.
Tissue: A group or layer of cells, such as the skin, that together performs
specific functions.
Tumor: An abnormal mass of tissue that results from too much cell division.
Tumors perform no useful body function. They may be either benign (not
cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
Tumor suppressor gene: A gene whose normal function is to prevent
abnormal cells from dividing. Certain mutations in tumor suppressor genes lead
to cancer.
Virus: Viruses are smaller than a single cell or bacteria and cannot reproduce
outside a living organism.
40 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
INDEX
A aflatoxins 16, 17, 22 melanoma 6, 9, 11, 31
age 4鈥?6, 20, 27 mesothelioma 13
agricultural worker(s) 16 mouth 2, 7, 9, 18, 19, 30, 31
AIDS 9 nasal cavity and sinuses 7, 13, 15, 16
air pollutants 1, 12, 14, 27 non-Hodgkin鈥檚 lymphoma 31
alcohol, alcoholic drinks 1, 4, 7, 9, 17, 18 ovarian 2, 12
amitrole 11 pancreatic 2, 7
antioxidant(s) 18 prostate 2, 11, 31
arsenic 14, 15, 22 sarcomas 6, 9, 17
asbestos 1, 2, 13, 15, 30 skin 6, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18, 31
azathioprine 11 stomach 2, 6鈥?8, 10, 11, 30, 31
B bacteria 1, 2, 9, 10, 18 testicular 30
Helicobacter pylori 2, 10, 18 throat 2, 7, 9, 18, 30, 31
benzene 12, 13, 22, 27 thyroid 10
benzidine 2, 17, 24 tongue 30
beryllium compounds 14, 15 uterine 28
blood clots 12, 28 vaginal 12
blood transfusion 9 voice box (see laryngeal)
body mass index 8 carbon tetrachloride 12
bone 6 carcinogen(s) 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13鈥?17, 21鈥?29
C cadmium compounds 14, 15 environmental 2, 4, 7, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21,
cadmium metal 14, 15 22, 28, 29
cancer 2, 3, 6鈥?18, 20, 28鈥?31 human 7, 13, 15鈥?17, 24, 27, 29
cases by age 5, 6 in food 2, 8, 27鈥?29
causes 1鈥?4, 7, 8, 10鈥?12, 16, 17, 19, cartilage 6
21鈥?23, 26鈥?29 chemical(s) 1鈥?4, 7, 12, 13, 17, 19, 20, 22鈥?28
deaths 1, 7, 10, 14, 17, 30, 31 chlorambucil 11
detectable 4, 27 chlordecone 11
early-stage localized 12, 20 chlorine 13
exposure link 2, 7, 9, 11, 16鈥?18, 23, 26 chloroform 12, 27
familial, family history of 2, 12, 20 chlorophenoxy herbicides 11
nature of 4 chromium compounds 15, 16, 26
occupational 1, 9, 13鈥?16, 19, 22, 23, 25, chromosome(s) 3, 24
28 colonoscopy 20
screening tests for 20, 29 connective tissue 6
second 11, 28 cyclophosphamide 11
susceptibility to 2, 4, 27 cyclosporin 11
symptoms of 11, 21, 23, 30 D DDT 11, 27
trends for 2, 29, 31 dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 12, 23
cancer, types of 4, 15 diesel exhaust particles 14, 16
anal 9 diet, dietary factor(s) 1鈥?4, 8, 17, 18, 23, 27,
angiosarcomas 17 28
bladder/urinary tract 2, 7, 14, 15, 17, 31 diethylstilbestrol (DES) 12
blood cells 6 dimethylhydrazine 11
brain 11, 15,鈥?17, 31 dioxin(s) 13, 14, 22, 26
breast 2, 6, 8鈥?12, 18, 20, 28, 29, 31 DNA 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 26
carcinoma(s) 6 dose response 27, 28
cervical 2, 3, 7, 9, 12, 20, 30 drug(s) 1, 7, 9, 11, 12, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29
childhood 9鈥?11, 27, 30 dust(s) 13, 16, 19
colon and rectal (colorectal) 2, 6鈥?8, 11, 18, E early detection 20, 30
20, 31 employer requirements 19
endometrial 8, 11, 12, 18 environment 1, 2, 4, 7, 13, 17, 19, 20鈥?22, 27,
esophageal 2, 7鈥?9, 18, 31 29
eyes 6 environmental
head and neck 10 causes/factors 1鈥?4, 17, 22
kidney 2, 7, 8, 14鈥?16, 18, 31 contaminant(s) 13, 14
laryngeal (voice box) 2, 7, 9, 16, 18, 30, 31 exposure 1鈥?4, 7, 13, 14, 17, 22, 28
leukemia 6, 7, 10鈥?12, 27 tobacco smoke (ETS) 7
lip 2, 7, 11, 30 epidemiology 3, 23
liver 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 14鈥?18, 31 epithelial tissue 6
lung 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13鈥?17, 31 Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) 9
lymphoma 6, 9, 11, 31 estrogen(s) 11, 12
CANCER ENVIRONMENT 41
AND THE
ethylene oxide 11, 24 oral contraceptives 12
exercise 1, 2, 8, 18, 29 overweight 2, 8, 17, 18
exposure 1鈥?4, 7, 9鈥?30 Pap test 20, 30
P
acceptable levels of 7, 28, 29 peptic ulcers 10
biological mechanisms of 26 pesticide(s) 1, 11, 12, 14, 19, 22, 25, 26,
childhood 9鈥?11, 27 28鈥?30
occupational 1, 9, 13鈥?16, 19, 23 physical inactivity 1, 8, 17, 18
reducing 1, 10, 14, 17, 19鈥?22, 24, 27, 30 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 14, 26
F fallout 10 precancerous growths 30
fecal occult blood test 20, 30 prevention 1, 12, 17, 18, 23, 24, 28, 31
fibers 13鈥?15, 19, 30 progesterone, progestin 11, 12
fine particles 13, 19 proto-oncogene(s): see genes 5
food 1, 7, 8, 14鈥?16, 18, 25, 27鈥?29 radiation 1, 9鈥?11, 15
R
high-calorie, high-fat 18 X-rays 10, 11, 19, 20
salt-preserved 8, 18 radon 10, 19
fruit 3, 8, 18, 29 rate(s) 2, 11, 13, 14, 16, 25, 26, 29鈥?31
fungicide(s) 15 death 14, 30, 31
gastritis 10 incidence 2, 11, 13, 16, 25, 26, 29鈥?31
G
gender 4, 27, 28 regulatory agencies 27, 28
gene(s) 2鈥?6, 10 repair mechanisms 2, 3, 5
abnormal copies of 2 Report on Carcinogens 7, 8, 11, 29
alterations 2鈥?5 risk 1, 2, 4, 7鈥?14, 16鈥?24, 26鈥?30
growth-promoting 5 acceptable level of 27
oncogenes 5 benefit/risk analyses 11, 12, 26鈥?29
permanent changes in 4 factors 2, 9, 30
S
protective 3 secondhand smoke 7
proto-oncogenes 5 sexual behavior 1, 9, 18
tumor suppressor 5 smelters 13, 15
genetic factor(s) 4 smoking 1鈥?4, 7, 13, 15, 17, 22, 27, 30, 31
genetic makeup 28 cigar 7, 14, 17
Helicobacter pylori: see bacteria 2, 10 cigarette 1, 4, 7, 12鈥?14, 17
H
hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) 9, 18 pipe 7, 17
herbicide(s) 11, 13, 14 solvents 12, 19, 22, 24, 27, 30
hexachlorobenzene 11 stroke 12, 28
hexamethylphosphoramide 11 sunlamp(s) 9
hormone(s) 1, 2, 11 sunlight 1, 3, 9, 18, 22
human herpesvirus 8, 9 sunscreen 18
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 9, 18 susceptibility 2, 27
human papillomavirus (HPV) 3, 9 T tamoxifen 12, 28
hydrocarbon(s) 13, 14, 26 tanning bed(s) 9, 18
immune system 2, 9, 27 TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) 14
I
immunosuppressant(s) 11 tetrachloroethylene 12
incidence 9, 11, 14, 22, 29鈥?31 thyroid disease 10
infection(s) 2, 9, 10, 18 tobacco 1, 4, 7, 8, 14, 15, 17
insecticide(s) 13, 14 chewing; snuff 7, 17
Iodine 131 (I鈥?131) 10 products 1, 7, 17
Kaposi鈥檚 sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) carcinogens in 4, 7
K
9 smokeless 7
L lead 1, 11, 14鈥?16 toxaphene 11
lifestyle 1鈥?4, 17 toxicity 19
lindane 11 toxins from fungi 16
lymphatic system 6, 11 trichloroethylene 12
mammogram 20, 30 tumor(s) 4鈥?6, 10, 16, 17, 25
M
melanocyte(s) 6 tumor suppressor genes: see genes
melphalan 11 vaccination, vaccine 9, 18
V
metal(s) 14鈥?16 vegetable(s) 3, 8, 18, 29
metastasis 6 vinyl chloride 15, 17, 26
mirex 11 virus(es) 1, 3, 9
molecular epidemiology 3 water, drinking 1, 14, 16, 17, 24, 27
mortality 30, 31 weight 2, 8, 17, 18, 21
nickel, nickel compounds 15, 16 wood preservative(s) 13鈥?15
N
nitrofen 11 workplace 1, 7, 17, 19, 21鈥?23, 26, 27
O obesity 1, 8, 17, 18 X-rays, diagnostic, during pregnancy 10, 11,
X
occupational groups at risk 13, 15, 16, 19, 22, 19, 20
25 zinc 14, 15
Z
oncogene(s): see genes
42 CANCER ENVIRONMENT
AND THE
National Institute
of Environmental
Health Sciences
NIH Publication No. 03鈥?2039
Printed August 2003
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